International Research Journal of MMC (IRJMMC)
Aims and Scope Makawanpur Multiple Campus (MMC) is a non-profit making community campus located in Hetauda, Makawanpur, Nepal. It was established on Magh 19, 2037 BS (February 1, 1981 AD). It is a QAA (Quality Assurance & Accreditation) certified academic institution by UGC, Nepal. The campus is publishing a peer reviewed journal entitled “International Research Journal of MMC (IRJMMC) that publishes original research articles quarterly in all areas of Social Sciences, Management, Education, Law, Science and Technology etc. The main aim of the journal is to encourage all students, faculties, and researchers to engage in research, carry out research work and provide global platform for all scholars. Publication Frequency IRJMMC publishes four issues a year. The Editorial Process Authors are requested to visit the author guidelines first to prepare the article before submission. Submitted manuscript format will be reviewed and the author will be informed about further process by the research coordinator. Then the received manuscript will be submitted to the review committee that will forward it to the concerned reviewers for the blind peer review. The author will be informed about the comments of the reviewers. The author will have to return the corrected article within one week for the further process of publication. The Chief Editor will be responsible for the quality of the journal article concerning its publication. Open Access Policy This journal provides immediate open access to its content on the principle that making research freely available to the public supports a greater global exchange of knowledge. Copyright Copyright of the articles is transferred to Makawanpur Multiple Campus. Article Processing Fees Cost of Hard copy: Rs 200/ For a Nepali author (After the article is accepted for publication): Rs 2000/ For a foreign author (After the article is accepted for publication): USD 50/ Sources of Support UGC Nepal supports the publication. Makawanpur Multiple Campus has established a Research Management Cell and campus allocates certain percentage from monthly tuition fee collection. The MMC Campus also get support from the local and provincial government of Nepal. Publisher The International Research Journal of MMC is published by Makawanpur Multiple Campus.
Makawanpur Multiple Campus, Hetauda, Nepal
Representation of Major Female Characters as the Victim of Patriarchal Supremacy in F. Scott Fitzgerald’s ‘The Great Gatsby’
This study explores the position of the Female Characters in the patriarchal society of America in the 1920s through a subtle analysis of Francis Scott Fitzgerald’s novel, “The Great Gatsby”. The study primarily highlights major three female characters Daisy Buchanan, Myrtle Wilson and Jordan Baker, their status as the products of oppressive forces and objects rather than as thoughtful beings. The study is based on the qualitative research analysis and application of the feministic approach in order to interpret the aroused themes. The study thematically makes a rigorous and critical analysis of the novel’s significant phrases and statements taken from the novel. Thematic analysis rivets on the secondary data sources, including peer-reviewed journal articles and critical books on 20th-century American literature. The theoretical framework is based on feminism which illuminates the female characters' leaning to marry well-off men and entangling them in morally wicked partners. The findings expose a shocking depiction of the women’s entrapment, offering important insights into how the American Dream utilizes the women as the commodities. This study pinpoints the critical significance of questioning against the historical patriarchal prejudicial treatments and stresses on the need of a contemporary re-consideration of systemic gender biases.
Copyright (c) 2026 International Research Journal of MMC (IRJMMC) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
रातभरि हुरी चल्यो कथामा शून्यता–दर्शन (Śūnyatā Philosophy in the Story Rātbhari Huri Chalyo)
यस लेखमा इन्द्रबहादुर राईद्वारा लेखिएको रातभरि हुरी चल्यो कथाभित्र प्रयुक्त नागार्जुनको शून्यता दर्शनसँग सम्बन्धित प्रसङ्गलाई पहिल्याएर विश्लेषण गरिएको छ । कथामा प्रस्तुत गरिएको प्राकृतिक हुरीको परिवेश र अन्य परिवेशभित्र पात्रका माध्यमबाट प्रस्तुत गरिएको दर्शनलाई कथानक, मूल्याङ्कन, परिणाम र कथान्तकका आधारमा निष्कर्ष निकालिएको छ । कथाको बाह्य परिवेशका कारण कथाका पात्रको अन्तर्मनमा मानसिक हुरी चल्दछ । यी दुई प्राकृतिक र मानसिक हुरी बिचको सापेक्षिक सम्बन्धले जीवनका कार्य, अनुभव, धारणा, आवेग, व्यवहार आदिमा प्रभाव पारेका छन् । ती प्रभाव परेका विषयहरू परिस्थितिजन्य हुने तथा कार्यकारण शृङ्खला भएकाले ती स्वभावरहित हुन्छन् भन्ने तथ्य प्रस्ट छ । स्वभावरहित तथा सापेक्षिक हुनु नै नागार्जुनको शून्यतादर्शन हो । कालेका बाबु र कालेकी आमाको दैनिक जीवन, आपसी संवाद, र परिस्थितिको उतारचढावलाई मध्यम मार्गीय दृष्टिकोणबाट हेर्दा कथामा प्रतीत्यसमुत्पाद र शून्यतादर्शन प्रयोग भएको स्पष्ट छ । पात्रमा उत्पन्न भएको विचार, त्यस विचारले उत्पन्न गरेको निर्णय र व्यावहारिक परिस्थितिको प्रभावमा विषयवस्तु परिवर्तनशील छ । परिवर्तनशीलतालाई प्रतीत्यसमुत्पादले दार्शनिक रूपमा व्याख्या गरेको छ । यसरी कथाले जीवनका घटना, मानवीय भावना र प्राकृतिक परिवर्तनलाई मध्यमार्गी, परस्पर निर्भर र निःस्वभाव भएको प्रमाणित गरेको छ । यो शून्यता दर्शनको मूल सार हो । यही सारलाई कथाले विषयवस्तु, पात्र, परिवेश आदिका माध्यमबाट प्रस्तुत गरेको छ । (This article analyzes the aspects of Nāgārjuna’s philosophy of Śūnyatā employed in Indra Bahadur Rai’s story Rātbhari Huri Chalyo. The philosophical ideas presented through the natural setting of the storm and other settings depicted through the characters are examined, and conclusions are drawn on the basis of the plot, evaluation, outcome, and ending of the story. The external environment of the story gives rise to a mental storm within the minds of the characters. The relative relationship between these two storms—natural and mental—affects human activities, experiences, perceptions, emotions, and behaviour. It is evident that these affected phenomena are situational and devoid of inherent nature because they arise through a chain of causes and conditions. According to Nāgārjuna, being devoid of inherent nature and existing only in dependence on other conditions constitutes the philosophy of Śūnyatā. From the perspective of the Middle Way, the daily life, mutual conversations, and changing circumstances of Kāle’s father and Kāle’s mother clearly demonstrate the use of pratītyasamutpāda (dependent origination) and the philosophy of Śūnyatā in the story. The subject matter remains changeable under the influence of the thoughts arising in the characters, the decisions produced by those thoughts, and practical circumstances. This changeability is philosophically explained through pratītyasamutpāda. Thus, the story demonstrates that the events of life, human emotions, and natural changes are middle-way, interdependent, and devoid of inherent nature. This is the fundamental essence of the philosophy of Śūnyatā, which the story presents through its subject matter, characters, setting, and other literary elements.)
pratītyasamutpāda (dependent origination)
Community Based Social Therapy Approaches for Strengthening Local Governance in Kaski District, Nepal
Social therapy is known as an intersectional method for social audit within local governance. It is the process of revitalizing of community consciousness and accountability by seeding, feeding and bridging ethical governance through social therapy interventions. Social therapy affects questioning power of citizens and enhance inclusivity and responsiveness among authentic unit of government. The study based on 72 wards of Kaski District, Nepal. The major objective of this study was to examine the government officials' perceptions regarding elected representatives' decision-making dynamism, civic complaint facilities and hearings at the local levels. It applied community intervention and social prescribing theories to address governance challenges such as limited participation, weak accountability and service delivery gaps. It advocates mobilizing social therapy to rebuild civic trust, amplify citizen voice and foster collaborative governance. A descriptive and analytical study design grounded in a quantitative approach was employed in this study. A structured survey was conducted in line with cluster sampling of 82 government authorities from five local government units of the district. Data were collected with the support of structured questionnaires. The findings indicate that accessible civic complaint systems and frequent public hearings interventions through dialogic engagement and community-based participatory practices offer a transformative pathway for strengthening trust, accountability and civic engagement. This study may be useful for local bodies and future researchers.
गोरखा नगरपालिकाका सामुदायिक माध्यमिक विद्यालयहरूमा विद्यमान पठनबोधशिक्षणको समीक्षा (The Review of Teaching Comprehension Practices in Community Secondary Schools of Gorkha Municipality)
This study focuses on a review of practices of teaching reading comprehension in community secondary schools of Gorkha Municipality. Teaching comprehension has been practiced at school to university level. Effective teaching comprehension is considered indispensable for enhancing students' reading comprehension capacities and for strengthening their skills in writing appropriate, original, and precise answers to related questions. When teaching comprehension is sufficiently practiced, students' comprehension capacity enhances fully, enabling them to provide original and accurate responses to text-related questions. Although previous studies have revealed diversity in students' reading comprehension abilities, a micro-level review of teaching reading comprehension in community schools remains absent. The main objective of this study was to address this research gap by reviewing the existing practices of reading comprehension across various domains. A mixed-method approach combining survey and library methods was employed. Out of the 18 community secondary schools in Gorkha Municipality, 6 were selected through cluster sampling. Subsequently, a total of 48 informants were chosen using systematic sampling. A closed, structured questionnaire covering 14 areas including both theoretical and practical aspects of teaching comprehension was used for data collection. The responses obtained were analyzed and interpreted comparatively through frequency counts, tabulation, bar charts, and pie charts. Findings of the study showed that adequate teaching occurs in only three of the 14 areas of teaching comprehension. This clearly highlights the strengths and weaknesses of teaching reading comprehension. It demonstrates that teaching comprehension in community secondary schools of Gorkha Municipality is only partially robust. Insufficient teaching and practice in the majority of teaching comprehension domains appear to hinder the full fostering of students' comprehension capacity. Insights from this study will be beneficial for practical improvements in school-level teaching comprehension, for the academic enhancement of students' comprehension capacities, and for elevating overall educational quality. (प्रस्तुत अध्ययन गोरखा नगरपालिकाका सामुदायिक माध्यमिक विद्यालयहरूमा विद्यमान पठनबोधशिक्षणको समीक्षामा केन्द्रित छ । पठनबोधको शिक्षण विद्यालयदेखि विश्वविद्यालय तहसम्म हुन्छ । विद्यार्थीहरूको पठनबोधक्षमता अभिवृद्धि गरी बोधप्रश्नका उपयुक्त, मौलिक र सटिक उत्तर लेखन कला सुदृढ गर्न प्रभावकारी बोधशिक्षण अपरिहार्य मानिन्छ । पर्याप्त मात्रामा बोधशिक्षण भएमा विद्यार्थीहरूको बोधक्षमताको अभिवृद्धि भएर पाठसँग सम्बन्धित प्रश्नहरूका मौलिक र सटिक उत्तर दिन सक्षम हुन्छन् । विगतका अध्ययनहरूले विद्यार्थीहरूको पठनबोध क्षमतामा विविधता देखाए तापनि सामुदायिक विद्यालयहरूमा गरिने पठनबोधशिक्षणको सूक्ष्म समीक्षा भएको पाइँदैन । यही शोधअन्तराललाई सम्बोधनका लागि पठनबोधशिक्षणका विभिन्न क्षेत्रहरूमा विद्यमान शिक्षणको समीक्षा गर्नु यस अध्ययनको उद्देश्य रहेको छ । यसका लागि सर्वेक्षण र पुस्तकालीय विधिको मिश्रित प्रयोग गरिएको थियो । समीक्षाका लागि गोरखा नगरपालिकाका १८ वटा सामुदायिक माध्यमिक विद्यालयहरूमध्ये गुच्छ नमुना छनौट विधिमार्फत ६ वटा विद्यालयहरू छानिएका थिए । तत्पश्चात्, व्यवस्थित नमुना छनौट विधिद्वारा कुल ४८ जना सूचकहरू चयन गरियो । तथ्याङ्क सङ्कलनका लागि पठनबोधशिक्षणको सैद्धान्तिक र प्रायोगिक खण्डका १४ वटा क्षेत्रहरू समेटिएको बन्द संरचित प्रश्नावलीको उपयोग गरिएको थियो । प्राप्त उत्तरहरूको आवृत्ति गणना गरी तालिकीकरण, स्तम्भचित्र र वृत्तचित्रका माध्यमबाट तथ्याङ्कको तुलनात्मक विश्लेषण र अर्थापन गरिएको छ । यस विश्लेषणबाट, बोधशिक्षणका १४ क्षेत्रहरूमध्ये केवल तीनवटा क्षेत्रहरूमा मात्र पर्याप्त शिक्षण हुने गरेको ‍तथ्य फेला परेको छ । यसले पठनबोधशिक्षणका सवल र दुर्वल क्षेत्रहरूलाई स्पष्टरूपमा उजागर गरेको छ । प्राप्त परिणामले गोरखा नगरपालिकाका सामुदायिक माध्यमिक विद्यालयहरूमा गरिने बोधशिक्षण आंशिक रूपमा मात्र सबल रहेको देखाएको छ । बोधशिक्षणका अधिकांश क्षेत्रहरूमा पर्याप्त शिक्षण र अभ्यास नहुँदा विद्यार्थीहरूको बोधक्षमताको प्रवर्धनमा अवरोध पुगेको देखिन्छ । यो समीक्षा विद्यालय तहको पठनबोधशिक्षणको अभ्यासमा व्यावहारिक सुधार, विद्यार्थीहरूको बोधात्मक क्षमताको प्राज्ञिक प्रवर्धन र समग्र शैक्षिक गुणस्तर अभिवृद्धि गर्न उपयोगी सिद्ध हुनेछ ।)
Examining the Sustainable Development Goals: Key Insights and Practical Strategies for Implementation
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) provide a comprehensive global framework for promoting inclusive socio-economic development, environmental sustainability, and institutional resilience, yet their effective implementation remains a significant challenge across diverse national and local contexts. This study adopted a qualitative exploratory research design in which secondary data were collected from relevant books, scholarly articles, and credible website documents. This study aims to examine the Sustainable Development Goals and to suggest practical strategies for their implementation. Qualitative secondary data were analyzed using critical analysis. The study examines all 17 Sustainable Development Goals and identifies the strategic pathways for their implementation. The analysis reveals that although the SDGs provide a comprehensive framework for sustainable development, their implementation is hindered by governance gaps, financial constraints, institutional weaknesses, and structural inequalities. Effective implementation requires integrated policies, inclusive governance, community participation, strategic partnerships, and strengthened institutional capacity. The findings provide useful insights for students, educators, academic institutions, policymakers, and local communities seeking to strengthen SDG implementation through education, capacity building, and collaborative action.
Determinants of Work Engagement in Nepalese Commercial Banks
Work engagement has become an important phenomenon in this twenty-first-century business environment because the service sector is facing tough competition from within and outside of the country. To achieve a competitive advantage, engagement is necessary, which provides strength to the organization and makes it competitive. Therefore, this study aims to examine the factors determining work engagement in Nepalese commercial banks. We used a cross-sectional research design and positivist epistemology under a 95% interval and 5% margin of errors. The study collected primary data from 375 bank employees as a sample of seven commercial banks, using a stratified sampling technique with a five-point Likert scale from the employees, which includes two joint venture banks, two public limited banks, and three private commercial banks, during the first quarter of 2026. The hypothesized relationships and data were analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (Smart-PLS). The reliability, validity, and convergent and discriminant validity were established through the same statistical software. The findings reveal that psychological empowerment positively associates with work engagement, leadership empowerment positively associates with work engagement, and perceived organizational support also positively associates with work engagement. This study provides valuable insights to academics and professionals of banks to emphasize implementing leadership dynamics in a tactical way to promote work engagement, which is anticipated to produce two benefits: better organizational performance and better employee well-being.
Personal as public in Rohit’s Letters from Jail
This study explores how Rohit’s Letters from Jail, addressed to his wife, illuminates a larger politico-cultural history of contestation and compromise. Employing Antonio Gramsci’s notions of ‘hegemony,’ and ‘resistance,’ Nancy Fraser’s ‘subaltern publics,’ and Carlo Ginzburg’s ‘microhistory,’ it investigates how his micro-level personal letters connect the macro-level politico-cultural contexts. It analyzes how his letters articulate an alternative public sphere depicting the hidden history of the community, whose contribution in nation building remained invisible in the elite public sphere, and locate the invisible-looking community as an insurgent intellectual. It attempts to substantiate how his letters depict his community, in Gramsci’s terms, as a ‘constructor,’ ‘organizer,’ and ‘permanent persuader.’ As subaltern studies members and microhistorians emphasize, his letters embody the story of resistance and resilience pertinent to rewriting the history from below movement. Readers realize how a small unit, an individual, or a community reflects a larger whole while reading his personal letters and reflecting the geo-political history. To support my argument, this study also uses insights collected between July 2025 to June 2026 when I participated Tamunjhya Literature Festivals in Bhaktapur, Thimi, Kathmandu and Kirtipur along with attending a dozen of social gatherings in which Rohit and his few supporters were present as literary and cultural critics rather than merely political activists. These literary and cultural public spheres articulated from the community offered a platform for collecting primary data through observations, reflections, interactions, and interviews supportive to this study. The finding and conclusion demand further inquiry to explore hidden history of Bhaktapur and its dynamics from microhistorical subaltern studies perspective.
Media Framing and Policy Legitimacy in Road Safety Governance: Online Discourse on Nepal’s Double Helmet Regulation (2016–2026)
The "Double Helmet" regulation in Nepal that mandates helmet use for both riders and pillion passengers which has become governance issue to contest with digital ecosystem. Nepal hosted more than 5,100 registered online media outlets in mid-2025, that is shifting public policy discourse toward digital journalism. The study used an exploratory sequential mixed-methods for examining online media regulation from 2016 to 2026 that has framed and analyzed its impact on public opinion, policy compliance and institutional legitimacy. Secondary data were drawn from a systematically sampled corpus of 105 news items across 21 major digital portals, complemented with quantitative analysis and 10 in-depth interviews with the stakeholder. Findings of the study has revealed that there is deep structural polarization in media packaging. Beyond routine enforcement spectacles, mainstream digital desks have promoted a "Policy Hack and Import Cartel" frame, linking the mandate to an artificial around 12 billion NPR market expansion across Nepal on import-dependent ecosystem. This commercial framing strongly validated a public defense mechanism of "Symbolic Compliance," in which 60–90% of commuters purchase substandard, uncertified headgear merely to evade administrative traffic fines rather than mitigating medical risk. The study also opined that there is a conversely, textual data significant geographic divergence. Because of the geographical divergence, metropolitan media fueled public cynicism over infrastructure deficits and road networks within regional networks successfully which has been constructed narratives of normative compliance by framing enforcement through community-centric welfare campaigns. Ultimately, this study demonstrates that newly registered Transportation Bill of Nepal (2024) attempts to codify compliance through statutory penalties, public legitimacy remains fractured. Online media serves public arena where road safety is constantly negotiated between corporate skepticism and a critical preventive public health intervention.
Dewali Ancestral Worship and Social Cohesion among the Khabatari Budhathoki Lineage in Eastern Nepal
Dewali is a traditional ancestral worship in Nepali communities where families honor lineage deities for protection, prosperity, and harmony. Rooted in indigenous beliefs, it strengthens kinship, preserves cultural values, and promotes social unity, continuity, and collective identity across generations within changing socio-cultural contexts. The Khabatari Budhathoki Chhetri, a lineage subgroup of the broader Chhetri community, historically held influential roles in Nepal’s administration and military. The chief objective of this study is to explore how Dewali ancestral worship shapes kinship relations and social cohesion among the Khabatari Budhathoki lineage in Eastern Nepal using an ethnographic and descriptive approach to examine the socio-cultural dynamics of the Khabatari Budhathoki community, focusing on Kul Puja (Dewali) as a key ancestral ritual. Primary data were collected from five purposively selected respondents through semi-structured interviews and participant observation conducted in Mulkharka, Dhankuta. The study analyzes lineage structure, ancestral worship, social participation, and everyday cultural practices. The study findings show that the Khabatari Budhathoki community preserves its genealogical identity through oral traditions, written genealogy, and Kul Puja practices. Dewali rituals strengthen lineage unity, kinship solidarity, cultural continuity, social cohesion, and collective responsibility, while faith in the Kul Devata shapes the community’s spiritual and social life. This study is useful for those who wish to understand the rituals, kinship structure, and social unity within the Khabatari Budhathoki lineage.
Federalism and the Political Inclusion of Indigenous Nationalities in Nepal’s Local Governance
Federalism in Nepal was introduced to promote inclusive governance and enhance the political participation of historically marginalized communities, including Indigenous Nationalities (Adivasi Janajati). The establishment of local governments has created new opportunities for Indigenous representation and participation in decision-making processes. This study examines the extent to which federal restructuring has contributed to the political inclusion of Indigenous Nationalities in Nepal’s local governance system. The chief objective of the study is to analyze the impact of federalism on the political inclusion and representation of Indigenous Nationalities in Nepal’s local governance by comparing the 2022 local elections. This study examines the political representation of Indigenous Nationalities in Nepal following the institutionalization of federalism. Using a qualitative approach and secondary data sources, it analyzes Indigenous participation in local elections, particularly the 2022 elections. The findings highlight the role of federal restructuring in enhancing political inclusion, representation, and empowerment within local governance structures.The study finds that Nepal’s federal system has increased the political representation of Indigenous Nationalities through constitutional inclusion and proportional electoral mechanisms. However, their participation remains uneven, with limited access to key leadership positions and continued dominance of non-Indigenous groups and males. Despite progress in ethnic recognition and local-level participation, structural and regional disparities still constrain meaningful political empowerment. This study is useful for policymakers and government institutions to strengthen inclusive policies and improve the effective implementation of federalism in Nepal. It also benefits researchers and scholars by providing empirical insights into Indigenous political representation and local governance dynamics.
Significance of Studying Literature: A Holistic Perspective
The study explores the comprehensive value of literature in shaping intellectual, emotional, moral, and cultural understanding in human life. The objective of this study is to examine the multidimensional significance of studying literature from educational, psychological, and socio-cultural perspectives. The research employed an exploratory qualitative design to interpret and synthesize relevant theoretical insights. Secondary data were collected from scholarly books, journal articles, and online publications. The collected data were analyzed using a qualitative descriptive method. The sources of secondary data were published between 2020 and 2025 to ensure contemporary relevance. The findings from the comprehensive review of theoretical literature revealed twelve key findings highlighting the multifaceted significance of studying literature. These include the development of critical and analytical thinking, language and communication skills, empathy and emotional intelligence, cultural and historical preservation, creativity and imagination, moral and ethical reflection, personal growth and self-reflection, research and information literacy, literature as a medium of social commentary, lifelong learning and intellectual growth, its therapeutic power, and the exploration of new ideas. These findings reveal that literature serves as a vital instrument for holistic education and personal growth. This study benefits students, teachers, and researchers by deepening their understanding of literature’s transformative role in intellectual development and human flourishing.
Research in the Age of AI – How to Plan? A Bibliometric Exploration of the Research Lifecycle
Artificial intelligence (AI), particularly generative AI and large language models (LLMs), is rapidly transforming research planning by enhancing literature synthesis, research problem formulation, methodology selection, and workflow management. Despite this rapid adoption, limited evidence exists regarding the intellectual structure, thematic evolution, and responsible integration of AI within research planning. Therefore, this study systematically maps the scientific landscape of AI-assisted research planning through a bibliometric analysis of publications indexed in the Scopus database between 2017 and 2026. Bibliographic data were analysed using Biblioshiny (Bibliometrix) and VOSviewer to examine publication trends, influential contributors, collaboration networks, intellectual structure, and thematic development. The findings reveal a rapidly expanding research domain, with an annual publication growth rate of 51.08%, reflecting the increasing integration of AI into research planning. Science mapping identifies research management, artificial intelligence, machine learning, and large language models as the dominant research themes, while thematic evolution demonstrates a shift from foundational AI technologies towards AI-enabled research management and workflows. However, the analysis also reveals a significant conceptual imbalance, with technological advancements outpacing the development of governance, trust, ethics, and human–AI collaboration. To address this gap, the study proposes a five-phase framework comprising Strategic Conceptualisation, Systematic Literature Synthesis, Methodology Selection, Governance, Ethics and Trust, and Continuous Reflection and Feedback, positioning the human touch, curiosity, critical thinking, creativity, contextual expertise, and ethical judgement, as the foundation of responsible AI-assisted research planning. The study contributes both a comprehensive knowledge map and a human-centred conceptual framework that provide practical guidance for researchers, scholars, and policymakers seeking to promote the responsible, transparent, and sustainable integration of AI throughout the research planning process.
Indigenous Health Practices: A Study of Health-Seeking Behavior of the Lepcha Community in Ilam, Nepal
The Lepcha community is an indigenous group residing in the Ilam District of eastern Nepal. Their health-seeking behavior is influenced by cultural beliefs, traditional healing practices, and access to healthcare services. Understanding their healthcare utilization patterns helps identify community health needs and existing barriers. This knowledge is important for developing culturally appropriate and effective health interventions. The primary objective of this study is to examine the relationship between health, culture, and indigenous practices among the Lepcha community in Ward No. 3 of Rong Rural Municipality, Ilam District, Nepal. This study examined health-seeking behavior, health service access, and awareness of non-communicable diseases among the Lepcha community of Rong Rural Municipality–3, Ilam. A descriptive cross-sectional design with census sampling of 42 households was employed. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and key informant interviews using both quantitative and qualitative methods. The study was conducted over six days, from 2082, using both primary and secondary data sources. The study found that the Lepcha community continues to preserve its cultural identity through traditional festivals, rituals, indigenous knowledge, and strong social values despite the challenges of modernization and population decline. Traditional healing practices and the role of Dhami/Jhakri remain important in health-seeking behavior. At the same time, lifestyle changes have contributed to increasing risks of non-communicable diseases such as hypertension and diabetes. The findings emphasize the need for culturally sensitive health programs and community-based initiatives to improve health outcomes while safeguarding Lepcha cultural heritage. The findings highlight the importance of integrating indigenous health beliefs and practices into formal health programs to improve healthcare utilization among the Lepcha community. Culturally sensitive awareness and education initiatives are essential for strengthening preventive healthcare and promoting informed health-seeking behavior. This study is significant for understanding the indigenous health practices and health-seeking behavior of the Lepcha community, helping to preserve their traditional knowledge and cultural heritage. It also provides valuable evidence for policymakers and healthcare providers to develop culturally sensitive and inclusive public health interventions in Nepal.
Nepal’s Foreign Alignments Amidst Competing Global Ideologies
Nepal’s location between China and India, and engagement with Western powers has made its foreign policy complex in global ideological competition between liberalism and communism. Though Nepal upholds non-alignment policy, its diplomatic engagements show a pragmatic balancing strategy shaped by external pressures and domestic considerations. This study examines how Nepal’s foreign policy reflects influence of liberal and communist ideologies, and explores challenges of balancing relations with China, India, and Western countries. It also analyzes role of domestic political actors and institutions in shaping foreign policy. The research adopts a qualitative, interpretive case-study design grounded in small-state diplomacy and asymmetric international relations. Secondary data were collected from books, peer-reviewed journal articles, studies on Nepal’s foreign policy and small-state behavior. Analysis also draws upon primary political documents, official government policy statements, constitutional provisions, and speeches by influential political leaders. Data were analyzed using qualitative thematic and interpretive content analysis. The findings indicate that Nepal pursues a pragmatic hedging strategy rather than strict ideological alignment, balancing relations with China, India, and West to maximize strategic autonomy. Domestic political actors and institutions significantly shape foreign policy decisions, where regime security and nationalist considerations take precedence over ideological consistency. The study concludes that Nepal’s foreign policy is best understood as a dynamic negotiation between domestic political imperatives and external geopolitical pressures. These findings contribute to the literature on small-state diplomacy by demonstrating how ideological competition and domestic political dynamics jointly influence the foreign policy behavior of states operating within asymmetric regional power structures.
Service Dimensions and Customer Satisfaction in the Pathao Service Market in Kathmandu Valley
Customers play a conclusive role in the survival, growth and success of the service provider. The ability of a service provider to attract and retain their customers has been becoming more crucial factors in the long run. This study assesses major four dimensions influencing customer satisfaction of Pathao services within the Kathmandu Valley, focusing on dimensions of service quality such as acceptability, availability, safety and security and sustainability. Using quantitative and explanatory research design to fulfill the objective of this study; primary data were collected from 390 Patho service users as respondents using structured questionnaires at the February 2026. Correlation analysis reveal that all service dimensions were positively correlated with customer satisfaction. Among these used variables, sustainability emerged as the strongest predictor, followed by safety and security as well as acceptability, while variable called availability with the p value of 0.464 showed no significant impact in regression analysis of this study. The results of this study indicate that customers highly valued environmentally responsible, reliable and secure services. The study concludes that the enhancing key service quality dimensions leads to improved customer satisfaction among the used variables. The findings of this study also provide useful insights for managers, policymakers and researchers to improve service quality within the Pathao users, promote sustainable urban mobility and guide future research in ride-hailing services throughout the world.
Pathao service dimensions and Customer Satisfaction
Identity-Based Federalism: Ethiopia’s Crisis and Nepal’s Future
Identity-based federalism has been widely promoted as a mechanism for managing ethnic diversity, political inclusion, and historical marginalization in multiethnic societies. This manuscript examines identity-based federalism through a comparative analysis of the ongoing federal crisis in Ethiopia and its relevance for the federal future of Nepal. This study, based on secondary sources, explores how the institutionalization of identity within federal structures can empower marginalized groups. It can generate new forms of political conflict. Methodologically, this research adopted both a qualitative and comparative approach based entirely on secondary data, including scholarly literature, constitutional texts, and policy analyses on federalism, ethnicity, and conflict in Ethiopia and Nepal, dating from 1982 till 2026. The findings indicate that Ethiopia’s ethnic federal model, while initially addressing demands for recognition and self-governance, has contributed to intense ethnic mobilization, governance failure, and challenges to state unity. The study further shows that weak institutions, elite manipulation of identity, and contradictions between constitutional design and political practice have played a decisive role in escalating conflict. In contrast, Nepal’s territorially based federal system offers greater flexibility but remains vulnerable to identity-based political pressures. The study concludes that the Ethiopian experience provides important lessons for Nepal, which emphasize the need for strong democratic institutions, cooperative federalism, and inclusive civic identities to ensure that federalism serves as a framework for stability rather than division in multi-ethnic states.
Bachelor-Level Student Dropouts in Nepal: Causes and Strategies for Retention
Student attrition at the undergraduate level represents a critical institutional and socioeconomic challenge within the higher education landscape. This study investigates causes of college dropout, and strategies for their retention. This study adopted a narrative research design in which primary data were gathered from 10 college dropouts in the faculty of education in 2025, whereas secondary data were collected from books, and journal articles. The research findings revealed that undergraduate attrition was driven by an intersection of compounding factors, primarily severe financial constraints, rigid theoretical curricula, lacking practical market relevance, pedagogical disengagement, and a profound deficit in structured institutional support mechanisms like academic advising and career counseling. Psychologically, feelings of academic isolation and low self-esteem further accelerate student alienation. Based on these findings, this study concludes that mitigating student attrition requires a structural shift from reactive management to a holistic, student-centric retention ecosystem. This study is significant because it identifies the major causes of bachelor-level student dropouts in Nepal and provides evidence-based retention strategies to support policymakers, educational institutions, teachers, and other stakeholders in improving student persistence, reducing dropout rates, and enhancing the quality and equity of higher education.
An Action Research Study on the Pronunciation Challenges Faced by Doteli Students
This qualitative action research study focused on identifying the pronunciation difficulties experienced by Doteli-speaking students in grades 8-10 in Doti, as well as examining how collaborative multimodal instructional strategies can help improve their English pronunciation. We used purposive sampling methods for data collection, with primary data including classroom observations, student work samples, and reflections, while secondary data consisted of relevant literature concerning second language acquisition. The qualitative thematic analysis identified three barriers to improving English pronunciation for the participating students: First language interference, limited resources available within the classroom, and lack of motivation due to limited exposure to English outside of the classroom. After the implementation of collaborative activities such as pronunciation modelling techniques, vocabulary puzzles, and phonetic reinforcement, there was an increase in correct pronunciation, fluency, and confidence level. The results of this study indicate that collaborative multimodal strategies and supportive learning environments help reduce pronunciation errors among non-native speakers of English, thereby providing practical instructional approaches for educators working in low-resource contexts.
Assessing Households’ Difficulties in Water Fetching and Latrine Use: A Case Study of Karnali Province, Nepal
Over the past three decades Nepal has substantially extended its water and sanitation infrastructure and, in 2019, declared itself free of open defecation. Yet how access varies from one community to the next remains poorly understood, especially in lower-income provinces like Karnali. This study documents, at the household level, who struggles to fetch water and use a latrine, and how those struggles differ across social groups. Using a cross-sectional design, the author surveyed 800 households in Karnali, split evenly between Bhagabatimai Rural Municipality, Dailekh, and Birendranagar Municipality, Surkhet. Data were collected in 2024 using structured questionnaires administered on tablets using mWater platform. Chi-square tests related two yes-or-no difficulty measures to four characteristics: place of residence, self-assessed poverty, caste and ethnicity, and sex of the household head. In total, 8.1 percent of households reported difficulty fetching water and 8.5 percent difficulty with latrine use. The rural water-difficulty rate ran about seven times the urban rate, and the rural latrine rate roughly doubled the urban one. Dalit households were worst affected for water, while Dalit and Other households shared the highest latrine difficulty. Among those reporting trouble, physical impairment was the leading obstacle, ahead of vision and hearing problems. Together, the results expose rooted inequities tied to terrain, income, caste, and disability, pointing toward rural-focused, caste-aware, and disability-friendly investment to advance Sustainable Development Goal 6. Importantly, the study offers some of the first household-level, disaggregated evidence of WASH difficulty in Karnali, helping planners reach households that coverage data tend to hide.
Impact of Agricultural Inputs on Indigenous Livelihoods: Evidence from Rural Makawanpur
Agricultural subsidy programs and agricultural input support initiatives are seen effective in transforming rural livelihoods, particularly among the indigenous and marginalized households. Using a quantitative, non-experimental, descriptive research design this study examines the efficiency of agricultural input support on indigenous livelihoods in Raksirang Rural Municipality, Makawanpur District, Bagmati Province, Nepal. Agricultural input support has made a positive contribution to the improvement of households, although the change in income is not uniform across households. Primary data was collected in 2025, with the sample of 180 households from the population of 330 households using stratified random sampling method. Where necessary, secondary data and information are from published journal articles, other literary articles and knowledge documents available in the sector. Almost 50% of the households gained income with the average income of Nepalese Rupees 12216.77 and 36% of households reported increase in annual income within the timeframe of 6 to 24 months of receipt of agricultural inputs. Larger proportion of households experienced improved food security, health and nutrition benefits and reduced household expenditure though they did not realize increase in annual income through agricultural products. Income from the sale of agricultural products was used for family livelihood, health, education with some reinvestment in agribusiness expansion and loan repayment, which indicates the shift towards livelihood diversification or creating alternative option of livelihood enhancement. The study is significant to understand the efficiency and effect of small scale external agricultural input support on family income, expenditure patterns and economic resilience reducing vulnerabilities.
Prevalence and Factor Associated with Elder Abuse among Older Adults in Madi Municipality, Chitwan, Nepal: A Community- based Cross Sectional Study
Elder abuse is a growing public health and human right concern worldwide, particularly in low- and middle-income countries where population ageing is accelerating. Evidence from Nepal remains limited and context specific, especially in rural areas. This study aims to determine the prevalence of elder abuse and identify associated factors among older adults residing in a rural municipality of Chitwan District, Nepal. A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted among 156 older adults aged ≥60 years in Ward No. 7 of Madi Municipality, Chitwan, Nepal. Participants were selected using purposive sampling. Data were collected on5th May, 2025 to 20th May 2025 through face-to-face interviews using a structured questionnaire comprising socio-demographic characteristics, family and economic factors, health-related variables, and elder abuse domains (psychological, physical, financial, sexual abuse, and neglect). Elder abuse was defined as experiencing at least one abusive act in any domain. Descriptive statistics were used to estimate prevalence, and chi-square and Fisher’s exact tests were applied to examine associations. A p-value <0.05 was considered statistically significant. The overall prevalence of elder abuse was 46.2% (72/156). Neglect (35.3%) and psychological abuse (34.6%) were the most commonly reported forms, followed by financial abuse (10.9%) and physical abuse (8.3%); no sexual abuse was reported. Elder abuse was significantly associated with age (p = 0.001), education status (p = 0.001), occupation (p = 0.001), number of children (p = 0.002), pension (p = 0.002), old-age allowance (p = 0.001), savings for future (p = 0.001), chronic illness (p = 0.024), and level of dependency in activities of daily living (p = 0.001). Nearly half of older adults in rural Madi Municipality experienced some form of abuse, predominantly neglect and psychological abuse. Socioeconomic vulnerability, poor health status, and functional dependency significantly increased the risk of abuse. The findings of this study imply a need for targeted community-based interventions, policy strengthening, and awareness programs to prevent elder abuse and address its associated risk factors among older adults in Madi Municipality, Chitwan, Nepal.
Urban poverty mainly in the under developing regions is a condition in which people live with a lack of adequate income, basic housing and access to opportunities and social inclusion. This study aims to examine the nature of urban poverty and the different nature of suffering among squatter households in Thapathali squatter settlement situated in Kathmandu Metropolitan City, in a multidimensional way. This study explores comprehensive forms of poverty beyond income-based measures only. It analyzes how economic insecurity is associated with education, health access, housing conditions, and psychological stress. The study applied comparative research design basically within a quantitative approach. It used a household survey under a simple random sampling method. The survey for this research was conducted in March–April 2023 and data were collected using a structured household questionnaire. The analysis was conducted using descriptive statistics, including frequency, percentage, and cross-tabulation to examine the reflection of urban poverty in the squatter settlement. It was used to examine patterns and relationships of poverty across key dimensions of deprivation to explore multidimensional nature poverty from the ground level. The findings show that most households depend on informal and insecure employment due to the status of less capability. A large proportion of households in urban squatter settlement experienced from low income and exclusion of education, health and housing security. These deprivations are closely associated with the insecure psychology of the respondents known as social nature of poverty. The situation promotes stress and feelings of social humiliation among them due to exclusion. The study concludes that urban poverty among squatter communities in Kathmandu is structurally produced through long-term unaccountable political processes and state-based exclusion.
The Role of Agricultural Cooperatives in Reducing Rural Poverty: A Systematic Review of Evidence from Developing Countries
Rural poverty remains one of the most persistent development challenges in the world. Over 700 million people are still living below the international poverty line, and the majority of them depend on agriculture. Agricultural cooperatives have long been proposed as an institutional solution to address the structural disadvantages faced by smallholder farmers. This paper systematically reviews empirical evidence from developing countries to assess whether and how agricultural cooperatives contribute to reducing rural poverty. We reviewed 68 peer-reviewed studies published between 2000 and 2024, focusing on Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, Latin America, and Southeast Asia. Evidence consistently shows that cooperative membership improves household income, market access, food security, and access to credit. However, benefits are not equally distributed, and outcomes depend heavily on governance quality, member participation, and external policy support. Agricultural cooperatives are a valuable but context-dependent tool for poverty reduction. Policy interventions should focus on improving governance, promoting gender inclusion, and integrating cooperatives into broader rural development frameworks.
Transformation of Higher Education in Nepal: Emerging Challenges and the Necessity of Rethinking Approaches
Education is a structured process that enables individuals to acquire the knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes necessary for personal development and meaningful contribution to society. It operates through formal institutions such as schools and universities as well as informal community-based learning environments, thereby empowering learners, strengthening citizenship, and promoting sustainable development and social inclusion. Higher education in Nepal faces several challenges, including outdated curricula, limited research capacity, inadequate infrastructure, and insufficient faculty development. The chief objective is to identify emerging challenges in Nepalese higher education and explore effective strategies for its improvement and transformation. An explanatory sequential mixed-methods research design was employed, involving purposive sampling of key stakeholders, including students, parents, and a pioneer academician. Data were collected through questionnaires, interviews, and document analysis in 2026, and they were examined using thematic analysis. The findings reveal weak governance, an outdated curriculum, limited research capacity, low student engagement, and inadequate scientific and practical education, along with employment-related challenges. These issues reflect structural, institutional, and pedagogical weaknesses that require coordinated reforms. The study emphasizes the need for policymakers and university administrators to implement need-based reforms in curriculum development, research enhancement, infrastructure improvement, and skilled human resource production. Strengthening these areas is essential for improving the quality and relevance of higher education in Nepal. The study is valuable for researchers and scholars by providing insights into existing challenges and supporting evidence-based policy formulation.
Analyzing Syntactic Categories and Grammatical Functions in English Sentences
It is essential for language learners to decode how meaning is organized and conveyed in English sentences. This study adopted a qualitative documentary research design to explore syntactic structures in English sentences. The objective of the study is to analyze syntactic categories and grammatical functions that operate within English sentence structures. Qualitative secondary data were collected from books and journal articles related to syntax and grammatical analysis. The data were gathered through a comprehensive review of secondary sources relevant to syntactic theory and sentence structure. The collected data were analyzed using structural analysis to identify patterns of syntactic categories and their grammatical roles. The analysis revealed that English sentences are primarily organized around core syntactic categories such as noun phrases, verb phrases, prepositional phrases, adjective phrases, and adverbial phrases. It was found that these categories perform grammatical functions including subject, predicate, direct object, indirect object, complement, and adjunct within sentence structures. These patterns demonstrate how syntactic categories combine with grammatical functions to form meaningful sentence structures. The findings highlight the systematic relationship between syntactic structure and grammatical roles in English, contributing to a clearer understanding of sentence construction in English grammar. This study is significant because it enhances understanding of how syntactic categories and grammatical functions operate in English sentence structure, helping to clarify the relationship between phrase types and their roles in communication. The findings benefit linguists, English language teachers, students of linguistics, and researchers interested in syntax and language structures.
Predicting Depression Among College Students Through Academic, Lifestyle, and Smartphone Factors
Purpose: This study examines how academic, lifestyle, and smartphone usage factors jointly predict depression severity among college students in Nepal, with the aim of identifying key risk and protective determinants of mental health. Design/methodology/approach: A quantitative, cross-sectional survey was administered to 394 college students. The questionnaire captured academic stress, lifestyle behaviors, and smartphone habits, alongside the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) to measure depressive symptoms. Data were analyzed using Python through descriptive, correlational, and multiple regression techniques to identify significant predictors. Findings and conclusion: Results showed that 62% of students experienced mild to moderate depression. Multiple regression analysis (R² = 0.56) identified sleep quality (β = -0.37), academic stress (β = 0.29), and social support (β = -0.23) as the strongest predictors. Nighttime smartphone use (β = 0.21) and low physical activity (β = -0.18) also had significant effects. The study concludes that poor sleep, academic overload, and weak social ties elevate depressive symptoms, while social support and healthy lifestyle behaviors act as protective factors. Implications: The findings underscore the importance of holistic student mental health strategies combining stress management, digital hygiene, and lifestyle promotion. Originality/value: This research provides one of the first integrative, data-driven analyses in Nepal linking academic, behavioral, and technological domains to student depression, offering actionable insights for higher education institutions to strengthen well-being initiatives.
Analyzing Filial Loyalty in Anita Desai’s “A Devoted Son”
Filial loyalty is central to comprehending parent-child relationships in contemporary Indian family narratives. The objective of the study is to analyze filial loyalty in the story “A Devoted Son” by Anita Desain. It adopted a qualitative textual analysis research design in which the primary data were drawn from selected excerpts of the story, while secondary data were collected from relevant books and journal articles. A comprehensive review of secondary data was conducted to support and contextualize the findings. Thematic analysis was applied to analyze the excerpts as data and identify patterns in the depiction of filial loyalty. The findings revealed Rakesh’s unwavering filial loyalty as one of the most prominent themes in the story. This study suggests that filial relationships in literature can provide insights into cultural expectations and emotional dynamics within families.
The Role of Social Media in Supporting University-Level Learning
The main aim of the study is to analyse the social media as an educational source. The study was carried out among the bachelor level students. The research study was guided by pragmatism philosophy and the cross-sectional survey research design was applied. Among the bachelor level students, 550 were selected from four faculty i.e. management, education, humanities and science by using simple random sampling method. SPSS version 27 was used to analyse data, and Independent-Samples Mann-Whitney U-Test and Independent-Samples Kruskal-Wallis Test were used to test hypotheses. Result showed that social medias were the basic study resources for University level students. They have used social media for listening to expert, searching for study materials, clearing the confusion, increasing learning interest, interacting with friends, learning cooperatively, establishing friendly relationship, and creating social connections. The null hypothesis "there is no significant difference between gender, caste and religion and their attitude towards social media as an educational resources" is rejected (p=0.000). The social medias were the crucial source of information, knowledge and skills for the university level students of this modern era. They can search required information through various web portals of social media. The study provides insight to wise use of social media in education field, especially in university level for searching study materials as well as to create the collaborative learning environment. The universities and colleges should make policy and plan to integrate students' learning with social media and various web portals to make their students competent in this competitive world.
Rewriting Colonial Narratives: Intertextuality, Feminism, and Postcolonial Subversion in J.M. Coetzee’s Foe
Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe (1719) is often regarded as a cornerstone of English literature, reinforcing colonial ideology through its narrative of exploration, conquest, and civilization. However, J.M. Coetzee’s Foe (1986) challenges this foundational narrative, using intertextuality, postmodernism, and metafiction to expose the silences and erasures within colonial discourse. This study critically examines Foe through postcolonial and feminist perspectives, drawing on Edward Said’s Orientalism (1978) and Gayatri Spivak’s Can the Subaltern Speak? (1988) to reveal how Coetzee subverts the imperialist and patriarchal assumptions of Defoe’s text. Employing a comparative textual analysis, this research positions Foe within the broader landscape of postcolonial literature and intertextual theory. Through Said’s contrapuntal reading, the study explores how Coetzee deconstructs Defoe’s narrative authority, particularly through the reimagined voices of Susan Barton and Friday. Spivak’s concept of subaltern silence is central to the examination of Friday’s muteness, illustrating how Coetzee critiques the marginalization of colonized subjects in both historical and literary contexts. The findings reveal that Foe is not merely a retelling of Robinson Crusoe but a radical revision that dismantles the myth of the self-sufficient European man while highlighting the epistemic violence imposed on women and indigenous figures. Coetzee’s use of narrative fragmentation, unreliable narration, and metafiction disrupts the traditional colonial framework, emphasizing the instability of historical knowledge. This study argues that Foe serves as a politically charged reconfiguration of literary history, challenging dominant narratives of empire and authorship. By interrogating colonial storytelling and questioning whose voices are heard and whose are erased, Foe becomes a powerful act of literary resistance, creating space for alternative histories that reclaim the voices of the silenced.
A Review of Nutritional Rehabilitation Homes on Child Malnutrition Management and Household socio-economic Well-being in Nepal
Background Childhood malnutrition remains a persistent public health challenge in Nepal, particularly among rural and marginalized populations. Nutritional Rehabilitation Homes (NRHs) and Outpatient Therapeutic Centers (OTCs) have been established to address severe and moderate acute malnutrition (SAM/MAM), yet questions persist regarding long-term sustainability of recovery. Objective This review comprehensively examines outcomes of nutritional rehabilitation for children in Nepal, focusing on clinical efficacy, socioeconomic determinants, and post-discharge well-being. Methods A narrative literature review was conducted using Google Scholar, Scopus, and Nepal Journals Online (NEPJOL). Twenty-one studies published between 2000 and 2026 were synthesized thematically. Results Clinical outcomes in Nepalese NRHs meet international standards, with mean weight gains of 4-7 g/kg/day and case fatality rates between 4-9%. However, a significant "sustainability gap" exists, with poor post-discharge follow-up and limited translation of facility-based gains into long-term recovery. Household socioeconomic status, maternal health literacy, and food security strongly influence outcomes. Emerging evidence supports integrated models combining nutritional treatment with psychosocial stimulation and community-based multisectoral interventions. Conclusion While nutritional rehabilitation programs in Nepal achieve short-term clinical success, long-term sustainability remains inadequate. Future interventions must address underlying household determinants and integrate nutrition-specific with nutrition-sensitive approaches. Research gaps include longitudinal follow-up studies, economic evaluations of integrated models, and implementation research within Nepal's federalized health system.