International Research Journal of MMC (IRJMMC)
Aims and Scope Makawanpur Multiple Campus (MMC) is a non-profit making community campus located in Hetauda, Makawanpur, Nepal. It was established on Magh 19, 2037 BS (February 1, 1981 AD). It is a QAA (Quality Assurance & Accreditation) certified academic institution by UGC, Nepal. The campus is publishing a peer reviewed journal entitled “International Research Journal of MMC (IRJMMC) that publishes original research articles quarterly in all areas of Social Sciences, Management, Education, Law, Science and Technology etc. The main aim of the journal is to encourage all students, faculties, and researchers to engage in research, carry out research work and provide global platform for all scholars. Publication Frequency IRJMMC publishes four issues a year. The Editorial Process Authors are requested to visit the author guidelines first to prepare the article before submission. Submitted manuscript format will be reviewed and the author will be informed about further process by the research coordinator. Then the received manuscript will be submitted to the review committee that will forward it to the concerned reviewers for the blind peer review. The author will be informed about the comments of the reviewers. The author will have to return the corrected article within one week for the further process of publication. The Chief Editor will be responsible for the quality of the journal article concerning its publication. Open Access Policy This journal provides immediate open access to its content on the principle that making research freely available to the public supports a greater global exchange of knowledge. Copyright Copyright of the articles is transferred to Makawanpur Multiple Campus. Article Processing Fees Cost of Hard copy: Rs 200/ For a Nepali author (After the article is accepted for publication): Rs 2000/ For a foreign author (After the article is accepted for publication): USD 50/ Sources of Support UGC Nepal supports the publication. Makawanpur Multiple Campus has established a Research Management Cell and campus allocates certain percentage from monthly tuition fee collection. The MMC Campus also get support from the local and provincial government of Nepal. Publisher The International Research Journal of MMC is published by Makawanpur Multiple Campus.
Makawanpur Multiple Campus, Hetauda, Nepal
Revolutionary Poetics and Social Transformation in the Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley
Percy Bysshe Shelley, a noted Romantic poet, integrates artistic innovation with revolutionary political vision by presenting poetry as an active force for social transformation. The major objective of this article is to examine how Percy Bysshe Shelley’s revolutionary poetics articulate social and political critique and promote ideals of social transformation through his major poetic works “Ode to the West Wind”, “The Mask of Anarchy”, “Prometheus Unbound”, “Queen Mab, England in 1819”, “Ozymandias”, “The Revolt of Islam”, and “Song to the Men of England”. This article employed an exploratory research design in which the poetic and essay excerpts were taken as primary data, whereas the secondary data were utilized through comprehensive reviews of books, and journal articles. The excerpts were analyzed thematically by focusing on poetry as an active force for social transformation. The findings reveal Shelley’s poetry as a revolutionary force that unites imagination with political commitment to inspire social change. Shelley’s works consistently emphasize the need for awakening, resistance, and moral renewal. They envision the overthrow of tyranny, critique social injustice, highlight the fragility of oppressive power, and advocate for the rights and dignity of the marginalized and working classes. Through his poetic vision, Shelley merges ethical concern with political consciousness, portraying literature as a catalyst for social transformation. Together, they affirm Shelley’s belief in poetry as a means to challenge oppression and imagine a just society. The study offers important academic implications by presenting an interdisciplinary reading of Shelley that links poetic form with political ideology and social change by viewing poetry as a vehicle of revolutionary thought and a critical tool for social critique in Romantic, political, and cultural studies.
Copyright (c) 2026 International Research Journal of MMC (IRJMMC) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Discerning Major Strategies for Alleviating Poverty in Developing Countries
Poverty in developing countries is a complex issue driven by an intricate interplay of economic, social, environmental, and political factors. This study aims to discern major strategies for alleviating poverty in developing countries. To achieve this objective, it adopted an exploratory research design based on secondary qualitative data collected from peer-reviewed journal articles, scholarly books, and policy reports published between 2015 and 2025. The secondary data, which were mustered through a comprehensive review of theoretical literature, underwent a thematic analysis. The findings of the analysis revealed economic growth and job creation, education and market-relevant skill development, financial inclusion and access to micro-finance services, social protection through social inclusion and safety nets, agriculture through innovation and agri-technology, good governance and transparent resource distribution, information and communication technology (ICT), renewable energy solutions, women’s empowerment and gender equality, access to healthcare and nutrition services, infrastructure development, and inclusive and sustainable development practices as the key strategies for alleviating poverty in developing countries. These findings suggest that poverty is a complex issue requiring interconnected solutions rather than isolated interventions. This study benefits policymakers, development practitioners, and researchers by providing a synthesized strategic framework that supports planning, policy formulation, and the effective implementation of poverty reduction programs in developing countries.
Chilancho of Kirtipur: A Unique Secret Site
This study aims to elucidate the importance of Jagatpal Mahavihar and Chilancho Caitya picturizing their historical and socio-religious dimensions. Then the paper explores ritual, cultural, artistic and archeological features and endeavoring to introduce the secrete sites among the local, national and global communities. The study employs qualitative approach, sequentially analyzing historical artifacts and religious practices to construct its holistic profile. The research grasps the secondary resources such as historical text, archeological reports, journal articles, Newar Buddhist heritages and local religious rites along with regular and traditional practices of Buddhist devotees in the shrines. Three key informants and interviews were conducted and analyzed correlating its attributes, historical developments, spiritual functions and assessing its uniqueness within local and global contents. This paper presents the strength of Chilancho living heritage and sacred sites but lesser known introducing its key uniqueness tantalizing subaltern perspective for further research.
Exploring Photon Travel through Atomic Structures: Dynamics, Interactions, and Implications
The investigation into how photons travel on atoms forms an essential aspect of understanding atomic and quantum physics. This study focuses on clarifying the fundamental principles that govern photon behaviour, including absorption, emission, scattering and quantum transitions. This research paper seeks to provide a comprehensive analysis of the mechanisms by which photons interact and move through atomic structures. Understanding these processes is crucial as they underpin fundamental atomic interactions and the behavior of matter at its most basic level. Through a detailed exploration of both theoretical frameworks and experimental evidence, the study identifies that photon travel is fundamentally governed by quantum probability, discrete energy-level transitions, and the dynamic interaction between photons and atomic electrons, the paper aims to elucidate the processes governing photon movement. By leveraging insights from various scholarly sources, this research aspires to contribute significantly to the existing body of knowledge and provide thoughtful implications for future studies in the field. This study will benefit researchers, physicists, and students working in quantum physics and atomic science by deepening their understanding of photon-atom interactions.
Cycle Tour Culture across Nepal Himalayas
This study explores evolutionary process of cycle tour culture across Nepal Himalayas from the auto ethnographic microhistorical approach with reference to the lived experiences of the pioneer Nepali cycle tour guides collected from July 2024 to January 2025 from 24 participants in the first-ever cycle tour guide training organized by Nepal Mountain Academy commenced in Central Campus, Tribhuvan University. It also includes (hi) story the first-ever cycle tour guide license distribution ceremony commenced at Tourism Office, Kathmandu on 29 December 2025. This study first investigates how foundation of adventure cycling in Nepal evolved opening avenues of possibilities through literature review, observation, interviews and discussions. Secondly, it connects the historical background of adventure cycling with cycle tour guide culture that evolved from a small community. It also explores how an informally evolved community generates historical momentum beyond boundary. In total 24 trainees - cycle tour guides - were participated in the training. This study was concentrated on the first cycle tour guide trainees in particular exploring their histories and stories. Most of them were well-trained high-altitude cycle tour operators/guides. Finally, it presents strategies and insights to operate cycle tour guide highlighting the resilience amidst precarity and policrisis while cycling in the high altitudes in Nepal. The findings highlight how a small history of cycle tour community of Nepal addresses higher level of socio-cultural and economic question of the nation. The conclusion offers avenues of the possibilities of cycle tour guide across Nepal.
The Application of the Markov Chain Model to Sales Forecasting
The Markov Chain model, rooted in stochastic processes, provides a robust analytical framework by modeling transitions between states over time. Unlike regression-based models that focus on continuous data or trends, Markov Chains capture the likelihood that current sales levels will shift to different levels in the future. Sales forecasting plays a pivotal role in strategic planning, resource allocation, and decision-making within businesses. Traditional forecasting methods often rely on historical sales data and trend analysis; however, they may fall short in capturing dynamic transitions between states of customer behavior or product performance. The Markov Chain model offers a probabilistic and state-based approach that accounts for such transitions. This article explores the principles of Markov Chains, their relevance to sales forecasting, modeling approaches, advantages, limitations, and practical applications in modern business environments. For companies looking to obtain a competitive edge in sales forecasting, utilizing sophisticated analytical approaches like Markov Chain analysis is essential at a time where decisions are mostly based on data. Utilizing probabilistic modeling, companies may predict market trends, adjust to shifting consumer tastes, and maximize sales tactics for long-term success and profitability. Effective business planning and execution will surely continue to rely on the use of Markov Chain analysis into sales forecasting procedures as technology advances. Mathematical Subject Classification: 05B20,11C20,11J06,11J83
Examining the Relationship between Death Attitudes and Life Aspirations in Nepalese Youth
This study explores the relationship between death attitude and life aspirations among youths in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Quantitative in nature, with a correlational design, a sample of 391 participants has been selected using simple random sampling. The collection of data was done using the DAP-R, which assesses five dimensions of death attitude, namely, fear of death, death avoidance, neutral acceptance, approach acceptance, and escape acceptance. The Aspiration Index was administered to assess both intrinsic and extrinsic life aspirations. Data analysis was performed using correlation and regression to test the associations and predictive effects of death attitudes on life aspirations. The results show that various dimensions of death attitude are significantly related to particular types of aspirations. Fear of death showed a moderate positive correlation with extrinsic aspirations, r = 0.270, indicating that the higher the death anxiety, the greater the motivation toward external achievements like wealth and social recognition. On the other hand, neutral acceptance and death avoidance showed a strong positive correlation with intrinsic aspirations, r = 0.533 and r = 0.265, respectively, reflecting a focus on personal growth, meaningful relationships, and self-fulfillment. Regression analyses showed both positive and negative death attitudes, and the total death attitude score significantly predicts overall life aspiration. Of these, total death attitude had the strongest effect, β = 0.328, p < 0.001. These findings point to a nuanced role of death attitudes in shaping the life goals of the young by underlining that mortality perceptions can stimulate both extrinsic and intrinsic aspirations in young people, depending on their nature. The study emphasizes that awareness of death attitudes should be integrated into youth development programs to facilitate purposeful and balanced life planning.
Health Perception and Participation in Daily Activities during the Menstrual Period among Secondary School Girls in Nepal
This paper explored the menstruation experience, confidence, and hygiene behaviors, and activities of secondary schoolgirls in Nepal, using average scores and independent t-tests to compare girls attending public and private schools. Most of the psychosocial and behavioral measures evidenced clear differences between the two groups. Private-school students reported a bigger drop in confidence during their periods (p = .018) and felt more uneasy about joining social events (p = .000), which suggests stronger social or peer pressures. In contrast, public-school girls felt more uncomfortable with participating in school activities, which may reflect ongoing limitations in infrastructure and support at public schools (p = .021). Hygiene practices were reportedly quite good across both groups, as evidenced by frequent carrying of sanitary pads, frequent changes of sanitary pads, and washing with soap and water, though private-school students were more consistently carrying sanitary pads outside the home (p = .033). Most of the cultural practices, such as sleeping on temporary beds, did not differ meaningfully between school types. One final exception was nutrition: public-school students were much more likely to report eating a balanced diet during menstruation (p = .000), reflecting variations in dietary norms or family expectations. Overall, the findings indicate that while hygiene has improved across both settings, confidence, participation, and some of the cultural restrictions persist according to the socio-educational context. The paper highlights the need for school-tailored interventions addressing psychosocial barriers, the creation of more menstruation-friendly environments, and supportive norms within both the public and private education systems.
Paradigms and Prospects of e-Assessment: A Scoping Review
E-Learning is becoming more popular as a result of technological advancement. The focus of the e-learning environment is inclusivity and accessibility for all learners with diverse geographical and cognitive backgrounds, where students get the opportunity to learn at their own pace, place, and time. The growing adoption of e-learning in education is not only creating a new platform for teaching and learning but also raising the issues of e-assessment. <!-- [if supportFields]>ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1007/BF03177550","ISSN":"08971986","abstract":"A taxonomy of literature reviews in education and psychology is presented. The taxonomy categorizes reviews according to: (a) focus; (b) goal; (c) perspective; (d) coverage; (e) organization; and (f) audience. The seven winners of the American Educational Research Association's Research Review Award are used to illustrate the taxonomy's categories. Data on the reliability of taxonomy codings when applied by readers is presented. Results of a survey of review authors provides baseline data on how frequently different types of reviews appear in the education and psychology literature. How the taxonomy might help in judging the quality of literature reviews is discussed, along with more general standards for evaluating reviews. © 1988 Springer-Verlag.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Cooper","given":"Harris M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Knowledge in Society","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1988","3"]]},"page":"104-126","publisher":"Springer","title":"Organizing knowledge syntheses: A taxonomy of literature reviews","type":"article-journal","volume":"1"},"uris":["http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=78855b9c-94b5-37a8-8da8-820915409311"]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Cooper, 1988)","manualFormatting":"Cooper's (1988)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Cooper, 1988)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Cooper, 1988)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":"https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"}<![endif]-->Cooper's (1988)<!-- [if supportFields]><![endif]--> method of organizing knowledge synthesis was used in this study. This review paper is focused on concretizing the existing knowledge in the e-assessment based on the findings of the research articles. The article published from 2012 to 2024, focusing on the concept of e-assessment, strategies of e-assessment and issues in the implementation of e-assessment were included in this study. The review revealed three major findings related to e-assessment conception and perception, e-assessment of, for, and as learning, and issues of authentication and authorship in e-assessment. Based on the findings of the reviewed literature, it can be concluded that e-assessment could be a firm alternative to existing paper-based traditional assessment. The findings imply that effective implementation of e-assessment requires well-designed feedback-rich and learner-centered assessment practices supported by improved teacher competencies, inclusive digital infrastructure, and reliable measures to ensure authenticity and academic integrity.
Monetary Policy and Inflation Control in Nepal: An Empirical Assessment
This paper examines the impact of monetary policy in regulating inflation in Nepal through a time series analysis covering 1989-2024. The analysis uses the annual data on inflations rate, growth of money supply, interest rates, fluctuations in the exchange rate, growth in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and the openness of trade to analyze both short-run and long-run relationships between monetary policy tools and inflation. The data were gathered in the secondary sources and mainly the annual reports of Nepal Rastra Bank, economic bulletins as well as the publications of world bank and international monetary fund. The study concludes that monetary policy has played a moderate role in dealing with inflation in Nepal using the Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) bounds testing strategy and a Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) that produces the error-correction coefficient of -0.385 indicating the rate of adjustment to the long-run equilibrium. The increase in money supply has a positive and statistically significant correlation with inflation hence validating the monetarist school of thought, but interest rates show a negative though insignificant effect on inflation. Changes in exchange rates turn out to be an influential factor of inflation in terms of import-price effects. The error-correction system implies that about 38.5 per cent of short-term disequilibrium is eliminated every year. Here, the results indicate that although conventional monetary policy instruments have some effectiveness, structures and exogenous shocks still have significant roles in the inflation processes in Nepal. The research will be useful in helping the policymakers, central bankers, and researchers to formulate more effective policies in the control of inflation within Nepal economy.
Narrative Perspectives on the Construction of English Language Teacher Identity
The objective of this study is to explore English language teachers’ identities in relation to cultural backgrounds, enthusiasm, and institutional conditions. It manifests lived experiences and sense of professionalism of resources, administrative support, and resilient identities through teachers’ narratives. I employed a qualitative research design grounded in narrative inquiry and identity theory to capture teachers’ experiences, emotions, and motivational factors shaping their professional career trajectories. I explored English language teachers’ identity construction in the spectrum of personal agency, organizational atmosphere, and socio-political scenario. I applied narrative inquiry to extract the individual's lived experiences, context-specific, and sense of their professional paths in their teaching journey. I used Clandinin and Connelly's narrative identity theory as a research methodology, conducting semi-structured interviews with five English language teachers and analyzing interactions in different classroom contexts. The primary data collection methods were informal conversations, note-taking, and audio recordings made on a cell phone. On the other hand, secondary sources were journal articles, books, and existing literature. Data collection was conducted in July 2024. Thematic analysis, Braun and Clarke helped me to identify major findings such as the formation of teacher identity, English teachers’ professional experiences, and environmental aspects influencing teacher identity. Findings indicate that motivation, social recognition, and financial stability shape teachers’ identity. Furthermore, this study highlights supportive administration, sufficient resources, and collaborative cultures that enhance teachers’ professional development. Narratives contributed to deciphering teachers’ economic hardship, burnout, and negotiating challenges in teaching domains.
Cultural Continuity and Identity Formation: A Study of the Gopali Community in Makawanpur District, Nepal
Cultural continuity enables communities to sustain identity, heritage, and traditional knowledge across generations, fostering social cohesion, resilience, and intergenerational solidarity. It protects indigenous identities, preserves cultural practices amid change, and allows adaptation while maintaining foundational cultural values. The chief objectives of this study is to examine the indigenous culture of the Gopali Newar community in Kunchhal Village, Ward No. 1, Thaha Municipality, Makwanpur District, and to investigate the efforts made to preserve and sustain its continuity. This study used a descriptive research design to explore the Gopali Newar community’s identity and its sustainable cultural heritage preservation, employing purposive sampling for interviews, participant observation, and focus group discussions to gather intergenerational perspectives and contextually rich, relevant data on cultural practices. In conclusion, the study of the Gopali Newar community of Kunchhal Village highlights how cultural preservation, identity formation, and social continuity are maintained through unique practices, language, rituals, and architecture. Despite pressures from modernization and socio-economic changes, the community actively safeguards its tangible and intangible heritage, fostering intergenerational cohesion, reinforcing collective identity, and demonstrating the vital role of community agency in sustaining cultural persistence. This research is significant as it documents the Gopali Newar community’s unique cultural practices, language, rituals, and heritage, highlighting strategies for sustainable preservation. It informs anthropological understanding, supports minority cultural continuity, and provides insights for policy interventions promoting social cohesion and resilience.
Understanding Intentions and Aspirations of Nepali Migrant Returnees: A Structural Equation Modeling Study
Background: Labor migration is a movement of people from one country to the other country for employment opportunities. Labor migration is the term used to describe the exodus of Nepali laborers to other nations in pursuit of work, mostly due to financial need and work opportunities. The study focuses on foreign migrant workers who migrate from their native countries in search of better living conditions and incomes, as well as because of limited employment prospects and economic challenges. Methods: A Descriptive and explanatory research design is used in this study. 403 return migrants were taken as a sample by using purposive sampling method. Theory of Economic of Labor is used. Structured questionnaires were used to collect data and PLS-SEM was used to analyze the data. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to evaluate the data. Findings: The study shows mostly male are the migrant returnees from age range 30 to 40. Major variables to affect return decision of migrants are family obligation, psychological factors and Skill, development and career opportunity in home country. Majority of the people migrate for better work opportunities and to improve economic conditions. Mostly migrants faced the challenges like low wages, cultural differences and home sickness in host country which can be solved by fair wage rate, welcoming environment in host county, proper Nepalese agencies to help foreign migrants. Conclusions: The study emphasizes how family ties, psychological aspects, and the chances for skill development in their own country all play a role in the decision of many men to travel to and return to Nepal. Implications: This analysis and findings will help the Ministry of Labor, International Labor Organization, and Nepal Labor Market, local government, and researcher on the similar field, professionals and future students. Originality: This research is original and there is no conflict of knowledge.
Copyright (c) 2025 International Research Journal of MMC (IRJMMC) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Organizational Ergonomics and Work Effectiveness in Nepal’s Industrial Sector: A PLS-SEM Study
Background: Organizational ergonomics is a very new idea in the industrial sector of developing economies. The industries in the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal are increasingly experiencing issues related to the feasibility of productivity versus the workplace health standards but not much research has been done to understand how well the principles of ergonomics can be systematically forwarded to enhance the productivity in the industry and the health of the employee in this context. Purpose: This paper has studied the organizational ergonomics across the Nepali industrial sector in Kathmandu Valley and highlighted the barriers of implementing ergonomics in an organizational setting and then offered the evidence-based recommendations. Methods: Descriptive and explanatory research design is used in this study. Self-administered structured questionnaires were used to collect data. A total of 160 responses were obtained via KOBO toolbox from Balaju, Patan, and Bhaktapur. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to evaluate the data quantitatively, and Smart PLS 4 was used to determine the relationships between dependent and independent variables using SEM. Findings: In Nepal, implementation of organizational ergonomics is not developed well. The major obstacles were the lack of health-related emphasis over production strains to the detriment of health conditions due to inadequate managerial training on ergonomic fundamentals and conflicts at work. The statistical analysis proved that a significant relationship exists between communication, motivation, managerial factors, work design, and performance management. Conclusion The study confirms that performance management is a central mechanism linking organizational ergonomic factors communication, motivation, managerial practices, and work design to work effectiveness. However, practical implementation, particularly in contexts like Nepal, remains challenged by a production-centric culture, insufficient managerial training, and workplace conflicts.
Adaptive Structuration and Post-COVID-19 Drivers of Cross-Border Consumer Purchase Intention: A PLS-SEM Study at Birgunj, Nepal
Cross broader business is a significant contributor to regional trade, but the consumers incur some problems like transportation inefficiency and difference in prices. The purpose of the study is to explore the influence on cross-border purchase intention of customers in business at Birgunj-border at Nepal especially after the COVID-19. The philosophy of research adopted was explanatory research design that was used to address the relationship between cross-border motivations and purchase intention. The research used the Adaptive Structuration Theory because of the conceptual model developed by Han and Kim. Research was conducted on 403 consumers, who bought items at Birgunj-border through convenient sampling and KOBO Toolbox. Both descriptive statistics and inferential ones were utilized, and PLS-SEM was applied to determine how hedonic, social, and utilitarian motivations affect the purchase intention. Protectionism is a prevalent issue beyond borders because cross-border shoppers face numerous difficulties in transportation management and affordable prices, and these difficulties can be solved by enhancing the activities of governments and business enterprises. The hedonistic and social cross-border motivation were identified as having a significant purchase intention, whereas utilitarian motivation did not indicate a significant effect. The research notes that consumer pleasure and social life are major stimulas of cross-border shoppers and to facilitate efficiency in trade, infrastructure and management should be improved. The policymakers and business operators must concentrate addressing the areas of streamlined transportation, setting fair prices, attracting cross border consumer activity to enhance trade flows and contribute to the economy.
Stress & Success: A study on Workplace Stressors and Performance among Female Bank Employee in Nepal
Workplace stress is a significant issue, particularly for female employees in high-pressure environments like banking. The background of this research stems from the growing concern over how stressors such as workload, job security, shift scheduling, and role ambiguity affect the performance and well-being of female employees in the banking sector. The main goal of this study is to find the main sources of stress at work and look at how they affect the work performance of Nepalese female bank workers. A structured questionnaire was used to get information from 250 female employees as part of a quantitative study design. We used both correlation and regression analyses to find the link between stressors and job performance. The findings reveal that all identified stressors—workload, job insecurity, shift scheduling, and role ambiguity—have a significant negative effect on employee performance. Shift scheduling explained 23.5% of the variation in performance, while role ambiguity accounted for 16.7%. The results highlight that higher levels of stress are associated with lower job performance, leading to the rejection of null hypotheses related to the impact of shift scheduling and role ambiguity. The originality of this study lies in its focus on the specific challenges faced by female bank employees in Nepal, providing valuable insights into how workplace stressors impact job performance in this context. The results make it clear that effective stress management methods are needed to boost the health and productivity of workers.
An Empirical Analysis of Monetary Approach to Balance of Payments in Nepal
This study aims to identify the economic variables that have significant impact on the Balance of Payments position in Nepal. This research further studies the applicability of the Monetary Approach to Balance of Payments (MABP) in Nepal. Time series data over the period from 1980 A.D. to 2024 A.D. has been considered in this research. The secondary data for the study has been obtained from various publications of Nepal Rastra Bank. Net Foreign Assets (NFA) has been taken as the dependent variable, as a proxy for Balance of Payments, whereas Nominal GDP, Consumer Price Index, Exchange Rate, Net Domestic Assets and Money Multiplier are taken as the independent variables. Ordinary Least Squares method has been used for data analysis by modelling a multiple regression equation. Similarly, descriptive statistics including Mean and Standard Deviation have been calculated for the variables followed by correlation and regression analysis. Augmented Dickey Fuller test was performed to ensure the stationarity of the time series data used in the model. From the regression analysis, Consumer Price Index, Net Domestic Assets and Money Multiplier were concluded to be statistically significant for determining BOP position in Nepal. Consumer Price Index has a statistically positive relationship with Net Foreign Assets, whereas Net Domestic Assets and Money Multiplier have a statistically negative relationship with Net Foreign Assets. On the contrary, Nominal GDP and Exchange Rate were found to be statistically insignificant in addressing BOP disequilibrium in the country. Hence, MABP model is still found to be relevant in the context of Nepal and monetary variables play effective role in maintaining BOP stability in Nepalese economy. This study will be helpful for the future research works on the MABP model and provide necessary recommendations to the concerned authorities including the central bank (NRB) and the government authorities.
monetary approach to balance of payments
An Outcome of Gender Subjugation: Analyzing Major Female Characters in Khaled Hosseini’s, ‘A Thousand Splendid Suns’
This research explores the women's roles, their position, and the men’s attitudes towards them in the Afghan society as reflected in Khaled Hosseini’s A Thousand Splendid Suns (2007) with reference to the political disorder, the socio-cultural structures and the exercise of the male- supremacy in the family. It exposes the patriarchal manacles over the female characters, their journey from the subjugated status to the realization of being stereotyped and making revolutionary stage. Based on the qualitative approach, the feministic tool has been applied for the textual analysis. By enduring the various obstacles contradictory to the feminism such as the sexual maltreatment, the banishment, the early marriage, the polygamy, the political anarchy, Taliban dogmas, the male atrocities, the research findings justify the repressive condition of the Afghan women, and how eventually they succeed to unshackle themselves through uprising, struggle and harmony.
Choice and Uncertainty in Robert Frost’s The Road Not Taken: A Thematic Analysis
The main focus of this article is to identify choice and uncertainty as the primary themes in Robert Frost's poem The Road Not Taken. The research utilized terminology or phrases as codes that added to the themes of decision-making and lack of clarity. The main information for this research came from the poem, while additional information was gathered from books, academic articles, and online resources. The study found that expressions or codes like "diverged", "sorry I could not travel both", "traveler", "just as fair", "perhaps the better claim", and "less traveled by" highlighted the theme of choice, while assertions, such as "long I stood", "looked down one as far as I could", "I doubted", and "made all the difference" emphasized the theme of uncertainty. The research adds to current literary analysis by exploring themes in The Road Not Taken, supporting theories that see the poem as representative of human uncertainty and the attraction of unknown possibilities. It indicates that thematic analysis can reveal patterns in literary works to enhance comprehension of literary categories. This article is important for individuals interested in teaching and analyzing literary works.
Cracking the Codes: Students' Preferred Strategies to Enhance Exam-Based Academic Achievement in Higher Education
Identifying students’ preferred learning strategies plays a substantial role in enhancing academic achievement in higher education. This article investigates students’ preferred strategies for enhancing exam-based academic achievement in higher education. A cross-sectional survey design was employed, utilizing a structured questionnaire consisting of 10 multiple-choice items measured on a nominal scale. The total population comprised 516 BBA and BBM first, third, fifth, and seventh semester students studying at Makawanpur Multiple Campus, Hetauda, Nepal. A sample of 221 students was determined using a sample size calculator with a 95% confidence level and a 5% margin of error. Proportionate stratified sampling was employed to ensure adequate representation across academic strata. A pilot study was conducted among 22 (10 % of the sample size) students. Fleiss’s multi-rater Kappa showed an acceptable reliability of instrument, 0.614 in the pilot study and 0.663 in the main study. Primary data were collected through the questionnaire in 2025 after obtaining written consent from the students to ensure confidentiality, whereas secondary data were reviewed from scholarly journals, academic books, and credible websites published between 2021 and 2025. Descriptive statistics (frequencies and percentages) and Monte Carlo simulation of the Chi-square test were used to analyze the primary data and examine any association between students’ strata and their preferred strategies. The findings indicate that students favored a range of strategies, including collaborative learning, structured daily study routines, key point reviews, interactive classes, the use of online platforms, continuous assessments, and personalized feedback. Moreover, students valued innovative teaching methods, access to well-equipped libraries and study materials, regular revision sessions, academic discussions, and student support services such as advising and counseling. Monte Carlo chi-square p-value (p > .05) showed no statistically significant association between students’ strata and their preferred study strategies at the 0.05 level. These findings can guide teachers and educators in refining instructional methods and inform policies that enhance student learning outcomes in higher education.
Fish Diversity Along the Fresh Water Rapti River Basin of Makawanpur, Central Nepal
This study was conducted in Rapti River in Makawanpur located between latitudes 27° 21’ 23" N to 27° 47’ 00" N and longitudes 84° 08’ 43"E to 85° 11’ 57" E. It was carried out throughout Bhainse to Lothar, border of Makawanpur and Chitwan with a range of about 40 km. The objective of this study was to discover the fish diversity in Rapti River, Makawanpur and to determine the Shannon-Weiner’s and Margalef’s richness diversity indices. A total of 4 stations were set on the basis of human settlement along Bhainse, Hetauda, Manahari and Lothar. The field work was conducted from January 2025 to August 2025 to cover winter and summer seasons. The fishes were collected by employing local fisherman by using locally prepared fishing gears. A total of 40 fish species were collected belonging to 7 orders, 10 families and 25 genera. The order Cypriniformes was the most dominant, comprising 30 species and accounting for 75% of the total collection. It was followed by Siluriformes with 4 species (10%), Anabantiformes with 3 species (7.5%) and Clupeiformes, Synbranchiformes and Beloniformes, each represented by 1 species (2.5%). The Barilius bendilisis comprises the highest frequency of 20.14% of total catch followed by Garra gotyla 8.14%, Puntius ticto 8% and Schistura beazvani 7.71%. The highest Shannon-Weiner’s index was recorded at Manahari (2.47) and lowest at Bhainse (1.97). The high Margalef’s species richness was recorded at Lothar (4.21) and low at Bhainse (1.85). Manahari has the highest diversity and Lothar has the highest richness. This indicate that Lothar has many species but their distribution is slightly less even than in Manahari where the species richness is high. The present study benefit researchers and locals for the conservation of valuable aquatic fish fauna enhancing biodiversity richness.
Capitalism and Global Inequality: Core-periphery Relations in the Context of World System Theory
Capitalism is a mode of production based on surplus value accumulation, where capitalists profit by exploiting wage labor and generating structural inequalities globally. Core nations, with industrial and financial dominance, control production and trade, while peripheral nations supply raw materials and cheap labor. This systemic unequal exchange perpetuates class struggle and global economic disparities. The main objective is to examine how global capitalist structures sustain inequalities between core and peripheral regions through the framework of world-systems theory. This study employed a Comparative-historical research design using secondary sources, including scholarly works, The Development of Underdevelopment, and Modern World-System, etc. It examines structural inequalities between core and peripheral nations through themes like surplus value, capital accumulation, and dependency, applying thematic and comparative analysis within world-systems frameworks. This study concludes that world-systems perspectives remain vital for analyzing global capitalism and inequality. Surplus value extraction, capital accumulation, and unequal exchange sustain disparities between core and peripheral nations. Integrating historical, economic, and technological insights, including Nepal’s context, it highlights structural inequality and concludes with guidance for equitable policy, balanced development, and inclusive global transformation. This study highlights the significance of world-systems perspectives in explaining capitalism and global inequality. It illustrates how core–periphery relations generate structural disparities through labor exploitation, uneven trade, and capital accumulation. Such analysis informs policy debates, guiding equitable development, justice, and sustainable global transformation in the 21st century. This study will be useful for those seeking information about the global inequalities created by capitalism in the contemporary world.
धार्मिक, दार्शनिक र वैज्ञानिक–मनोवैज्ञानिक दृष्टिकोणले मृत्यु सम्बन्धी ज्ञानको महत्त्व
मृत्यु सम्बन्धी धारणा र मनोवैज्ञानिक दृष्टिकोणहरू आधुनिक समाजमा एक महत्वपूर्ण अनुसन्धानको विषय बनेका छन् । यो अध्ययनले मृत्युको डर, मृत्युप्रति मानसिकता, र यसलाई सामना गर्न मनोवैज्ञानिक रणनीतिहरूको विश्लेषण गर्दछ। टेरर-मैनेजमेंट थ्योरीलाई आधार मानेर, मृत्युको बारम्बार स्मरणले मानिसको व्यवहार र धारणा लाई कसरी प्रभाबित गर्दछ भन्ने बिषयमा चर्चा गरिएको छ । यसमा मृत्युको स्वीकार्य दृष्टिकोण र यसको सकारात्मक अर्थ आर्जन गर्न अझै बढी प्रयास गर्न आवश्यक छ भन्ने मान्यता रहेको छ । यसले मृत्यु सम्बन्धी शिक्षा र जागरूकता बढाउन आवश्यक रहेको देखिन्छ, जसले मृत्युको डरलाई कम गर्न मद्दत गर्न सक्छ । साथै, नेपालजस्ता देशहरूमा श्मशानभूमि र अन्त्येष्टि संस्कारहरूको सामाजिक र सांस्कृतिक महत्वलाई उजागर गर्दै, यसले मृत्यु र शोक सन्तप्तहरूको मनोवैज्ञानिक र सामाजिक आवश्यकतालाई समेट्नुपर्ने प्रस्ट पार्छ । निष्कर्ष रूपमा, मृत्युको धारणा परिवर्तन गर्न आवश्यक छ र जीवनको अन्त्यको विषयमा खुलेर कुरा गर्न प्रेरित गर्नुपर्ने देखिन्छ, जसले व्यक्तिको जीवनसन्तुष्टि र मानसिक स्वास्थ्यमा सुधार गर्न सक्छ । यस अध्ययनले मृत्युको बहुमुखी दृष्टिकोण, सामाजिक मान्यताहरू, र शिक्षा प्रणालीमा यसको समावेशीकरणले दीर्घकालीन प्रभाव पार्ने तर्क प्रस्तुत गर्दछ । [The perception of death and psychological viewpoints have become significant subjects of research in modern society. This study analyzes people's fear of death, mental attitudes toward mortality, and psychological strategies to cope with it. Based on Terror Management Theory, this discussion explores how frequent reminders of death influence individual behaviors and beliefs. There is a recognized need to adopt a more positive outlook towards death and to seek ways to accept its significance constructively. The paper emphasizes the importance of death education and awareness programs, which can help reduce the fear of death. Furthermore, it highlights the social and cultural importance of burial practices and funeral rituals in countries like Nepal, underscoring the psychological and social needs of those experiencing grief. In conclusion, changing perceptions about death and encouraging open discussions about mortality are essential, as they can enhance life satisfaction and mental health. This study presents the idea that a multidisciplinary approach to perceptions of death, societal beliefs, and the integration of death education can have long-term positive impacts on individuals and communities.]
Students’ Opportunities, Challenges, and Strategies in Using Smartphones While Learning the English Language
This study explores the opportunities, challenges, and strategies experienced by university students when using smartphones to learn the English language. The research was conducted with eight English major M.Ed. fourth-semester students from two campuses affiliated with Tribhuvan University and Mid-West University, Nepal. A qualitative method was used, and data were collected through semi-structured interviews and reflection notes. The results showed that students found smartphones useful for flexible learning, quick access to information, and improving their language skills through various apps and online resources. However, they also faced several challenges such as distractions from social media, weak internet connections, small screen sizes, and a lack of motivation for self-study. Students also reported missing teacher support and peer interaction when relying only on smartphones. To address these issues, they developed strategies including setting personal study goals, utilising educational apps, disabling notifications, limiting non-academic use, and integrating smartphone learning with traditional classroom methods. The study suggests that with proper guidance and balanced use, smartphones can be effective tools in learning English.
Perception and Social Image of the Nursing Profession: A Study from Pokhara, Kaski
Nursing is unique profession focused on the care of individuals, families, and communities to attain, maintain or recover optimal health and quality of life. This study is designed to find out the public perception regarding nursing profession among people of Pokhara, Kaski. A descriptive cross-sectional research design was adopted for the study by using non-probability purposive sampling technique with 110 respondent of age group 40-59 years from Pokhara, Kaski. A structured face to face interview schedule with 5-point Likert scale was used to collect the data. Obtained Data were entered in SPSS and analyzed by using descriptive statistics for baseline information and perception. Inferential statistics method chi-square test was used to find the association between selected background information and perception on nursing profession. The finding of the study revealed that more than half 51.8% of the respondent had a positive perception and 48.2% had negative perception regarding nursing profession. There was statically significant association between level of perception and occupation (p value = <0.041) and educational status and level of perception (p value = <0.006). Hence, quality of nursing profession needs to be enhancing the positive perception among people through quality of nursing services.
Sky Burial in Upper Mustang: Cultural, Spiritual, and Ecological Perspectives on a Death Rituals in Nepal
This research explores the cultural, spiritual, and ecological significance of the sky burial ritual (Jhator) in Upper Mustang, Nepal a remote Himalayan region where Tibetan Buddhist practices persist despite growing external pressures. Sky burial, in which the deceased body is ritually dismembered and offered to vultures, embodies Buddhist principles of impermanence, compassion, and interdependence with nature. This research is based on qualitative study. Drawing on ethnographic fieldwork, the research relies on primary data collected in April 2025 through semi-structured interviews with local elders and ritual specialists and 6–7 days of participant observation. This study highlights how the ritual not only reflects spiritual cosmology but also contributes to ecological sustainability through the natural disposal of human remains. The study combines primary ethnographic data, which includes interviews and observations of ritual, with secondary data from relevant literature, to examine the cultural, spiritual and ecological importance of sky burial in Upper Mustang. The tradition faces critical threats: declining vulture populations, outmigration, modernization, and the erosion of indigenous knowledge. The collected data were analyzed by a systematic thematic analysis of cultural, spiritual and ecological aspects. The research reveals that while the practice of sky burial is diminishing, it continues to serve as a powerful marker of identity, cultural continuity, and human-nature connection. This study aims to fill gaps in interdisciplinary scholarship by offering a comprehensive account of sky burial in Upper Mustang, thereby contributing to anthropological literature, cultural preservation, and environmental conservation discourse in the Himalayan region. The implications of this research involve the areas of cultural preservation, ecological conservation, and heritage policy and suggest how indigenous rituals can provide a foundation for sustainable practices and support the safeguarding of Himalayan intangible heritage.
Urbanization and the Silent Suffering of the Elderly in Nepal
Nepal has experienced significant changes following dramatic urbanization. However, this process has failed to meet the needs of the elderly population, leaving them marginalized socially, mentally, and systematically. As a result, the study focuses on identifying the social, health-related, and system-related barriers faced by elderly individuals in Nepal. It reviews published articles, newspaper reports, and annual health records and presents its findings based on these secondary sources published between 2020 and 2025. The primary findings reveal that the elderly is socially isolated due to shifts in family dynamics. They suffer from both physical and mental health problems, and the health system has largely neglected their needs. Therefore, it is crucial to address these issues promptly so that the elderly can live healthy and fulfilling lives.
Examining the Determinants of User’s Satisfaction in Drinking Water Services: A Dual-Theoretical Perspective of Expectancy-Value and Service Quality Theory
This study investigates the determinants of customers' satisfaction with drinking water management services, namely user expectations, perceived value, service quality, gap analysis, and user awareness. Guided by Expectancy-Value Theory (EVT) and Service Quality Theory (SERVQUAL), the study employed a cross-sectional survey design using 399 users as respondents selected through stratified cluster sampling and data was gathered through Computer-Assisted Interviewing (CAI) with a structured interview schedule. The total sample and two categories of service providers, Consumer Committee and Drinking Water Board, were compared using regression analysis through structural equation modeling to determine the relationships among variables. The results showed that service quality had the largest and largest-scale positive effect on customer satisfaction in all groups, with standardized regression coefficients of 0.320 (p < 0.001) in total, 0.264 (p = 0.001) for the Consumer Committee, and 0.306 (p < 0.001) for the Drinking Water Board. Gap analysis found that only Drinking Water Board users showed a strong positive relationship between them (standardized β = 0.248, p = 0.002), indicating the precedence of expectation–performance congruence in larger institutions. User’s expectations and perceived value had a weak or insignificant impact on overall satisfaction, whereas user awareness had a moderate and significant positive impact among Drinking Water Board users (standardized β = 0.135, p = 0.027). The results indicate that while improving service quality remains the most effective way to enhance user satisfaction, addressing expectation gaps and enhancing user awareness become especially important in more complex service delivery systems. This study adds value to both academic theory and practical strategies aimed at improving user satisfaction within public water supply services.
प्रस्तुत अध्ययन पत्रमा श्रेयज सुवेदीको बहुरूपी (२०८१) कथासङ्ग्रहमा सङ्ग्रहित ‘रातो वर्षा’ कथालाई कार्यस्थलका रूपमा लिएर यसमा अभिव्यक्त सामाजिक तथ्यहरूका कारण पात्रका जीवनमा देखिएका क्रियाकलापहरूको निरूपण गरिएको छ । सामाजिक तथ्य भनेको व्यक्तिभन्दा भिन्न स्थानमा रहेर समाज निर्माण तथा नियन्त्रण, परिवार निर्माण तथा नियन्त्रण गर्ने धार्मिक, शैक्षिक, सामूहिक मूल्यमान्यता स्थापित गर्ने, चेतना प्रवाह तथा समाजलाई सिलसिलाबद्ध रूपमा अगाडि बढाउने शक्ति हो । ‘रातो वर्षा’ कथामा आएका पात्रहरूका क्रियाकलाप, घटना र चिन्तन एवम् विचारधाराहरूसँग सँगै रहेर कथामा अवस्थित परिवेशगत अवस्था, भौगोलिक, सांस्कृतिक, प्राकृतिक तथा सामाजिक पहिचानको सूक्ष्म अध्ययन गरी तिनका आधारमा कथामा प्रयुक्त सामाजिक वास्तविकताको विश्लेषण गर्नु यस अध्ययनको मूल उद्देश्य रहेको छ । दुर्खिम (सन् १९८२) को आधारभूत मान्यतालाई सैद्धान्तिक ढाँचाका रूपमा अवलम्बन गरी गुणात्मक अध्ययन अन्तर्गत ‘रातो वर्षा’ कथाको पाठगत विश्लेषण गरिएको छ । यस क्रममा कथामा प्रयुक्त सामाजिक तथ्यको मूल्याङ्कनका निमित्त समाजमा यान्त्रिक र जैविक सङ्घीभाव सिर्जना गर्न भौतिक सामाजिक र अभौतिक सामाजिक तथ्यका दुई ओटा उपकरणलाई विश्लेषणको मुख्य आधार बनाइएको छ । यस अध्ययनमा धर्ती र आकाशमा गरिएको पितृसत्तात्मक सामाजिक परम्परामा आधारित सामाजिक व्यवस्थाले गरेको लैङगिक विभेद तथा रूढिवादी मूल्यमान्यताले निम्त्याएका परिस्थितिहरूको खोजी गरिएको छ । ‘रातो वर्षा’ कथामा सामाजिक तथ्यहरूको प्रयोग गरेर कथाकारले सर्वहारा वर्ग अर्थात् नारीहरूलाई समान व्यवहार गर्नु एवम् न्याय दिनुको साटो अग्ला–अग्ना विभेदका पर्खालहरू खडा गरी उच्च वर्गले सर्वहारा वर्ग एवम् नारीहरूलाई विभेदयुक्त व्यवहार गर्दै विभेदजन्य व्यवहारलाई नै प्रश्रय दिएको तथ्य निष्कर्ष निकालिएको छ । यसै कारण श्रेयज सुवेदीको ‘रातो वर्षा’ कथाका सामाजिक तथ्यहरूले वर्तमान सन्दर्भमा समाजलाई एकीकृत र शक्तिशाली बनाउनुको साटो प्रभुत्वशाली वर्ग, पितृसत्तात्मक सामाजिक संरचनाले श्रमिक र नारीवर्गलाई गर्ने व्यवहारले नारी र श्रमिकहरू समाजमा सधैं शोषित हुन परेको यथार्थलाई जीवन्त एवम् संवेदनशील तरिकाले सम्प्रेषण गर्न सक्षम भएको देखिन्छ । [ multiplectic factors has been made by the characteristic of the character of the character. Social fact is the power to establish a society, developing and controlling and controlling, awareness, and the society that builds the society. Studying the activities of the characters in the story, the activities of the characters in the story, the activities of the characters in the story, and the locals are intended to establish the context of the global workplace. The basic recognition of the mutual beliefs of the Sixima (1982), under the qualitative study, the red-year-old is analyzed. In this process, two equipment from the analysis of physical social and unitary federations in the story of the Social Fact is to create a mechanical and unitary social fact in the society. This study has been searched for the situations that the strenologically discrimination and conservative values ​​committed by the social traditions based on the sky and the sky in the sky. Using social facts in the Rato Barsha story using social facts, the narrator stood the proletariatly squares and women discriminals.]
Effects of Students’ Competency in using CEHRD Learning Portal and Technology integration in Mathematics on Academic Performance
The aim of this research was to examine how different aspects of technology use, including students' competency in using CEHRD learning portal, types of activities, content areas, and time spent using devices, affect their performance in mathematics. This study employed a cross-sectional survey design within a quantitative framework, involving a sample of 704 students from 13 schools in the Kathmandu district of Nepal using stratified random sampling technique. Data were collected using questionnaire and analyzed using frequency, percentage, ANOVA, and path analysis to examine the effects of various aspects of technology use on students’ mathematics achievement. Findings indicates that the students with higher competency in using the CEHRD learning portal performed significantly better in mathematics, with highly competent students achieving the highest scores. However, there was no significant difference in achievement based on the type of technology use for learning activities or the mathematical content most frequently studied, though some positive trends were noted in areas like Algebra and learning new mathematical knowledge. Additionally, students who used mobile phones and laptops for less than one hour showed better performance than those who used them for longer periods or not at all, suggesting that moderate use of technology may be more effective for learning mathematics.