Impact of Agricultural Inputs on Indigenous Livelihoods: Evidence from Rural Makawanpur
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.3126/irjmmc.v7i3.97018Keywords:
agricultural input support, indigenous, livelihood diversification, marginalized communities, sustainable livelihoodsAbstract
Agricultural subsidy programs and agricultural input support initiatives are seen effective in transforming rural livelihoods, particularly among the indigenous and marginalized households. Using a quantitative, non-experimental, descriptive research design this study examines the efficiency of agricultural input support on indigenous livelihoods in Raksirang Rural Municipality, Makawanpur District, Bagmati Province, Nepal. Agricultural input support has made a positive contribution to the improvement of households, although the change in income is not uniform across households. Primary data was collected in 2025, with the sample of 180 households from the population of 330 households using stratified random sampling method. Where necessary, secondary data and information are from published journal articles, other literary articles and knowledge documents available in the sector. Almost 50% of the households gained income with the average income of Nepalese Rupees 12216.77 and 36% of households reported increase in annual income within the timeframe of 6 to 24 months of receipt of agricultural inputs. Larger proportion of households experienced improved food security, health and nutrition benefits and reduced household expenditure though they did not realize increase in annual income through agricultural products. Income from the sale of agricultural products was used for family livelihood, health, education with some reinvestment in agribusiness expansion and loan repayment, which indicates the shift towards livelihood diversification or creating alternative option of livelihood enhancement. The study is significant to understand the efficiency and effect of small scale external agricultural input support on family income, expenditure patterns and economic resilience reducing vulnerabilities.
Downloads
References
1. Alawode, A. (2025). Evaluating agricultural subsidy reforms and their effects on smallholder farmer income and efficiency. International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, 6(5), 180–201. https://doi.org/10.55248/gengpi.6.0525.1776
2. Chaudhary, R. P., Bhattarai, S. H., Basnet, G., Bhatta, K. P., Uprety, Y., Bhatta, L. D., Kotru, R., Oli, B. N., Khanal, S., & Sharma, U. R. (2017). Traditional practice and knowledge of indigenous and local communities in Kailash sacred landscape, Nepal (ICIMOD Working Paper 2017/1). International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD). https://doi.org/10.53055/ICIMOD.700
3. Das, S. (2025). Navigating agricultural transitions: A rural sociological analysis of traditional versus modern farming practices and livelihood implications. International Journal of Web of Multidisciplinary Studies, 2(12), 13–20. https://doi.org/10.71366/ijwos021298935
4. Dorward, A., & Chirwa, E. (2011). The Malawi agricultural input subsidy programme: 2005/06 to 2008/09. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 9(1), 232–247. https://doi.org/10.3763/ijas.2010.0567
5. Dorward, A., Roberts, P. D., Finegold, C., Hemming, D. J., Chirwa, E., Wright, H. J., Hill, R. K., Osborn, J., Lamontagne‐Godwin, J., Harman, L., & Parr, M. J. (2014). Protocol: Agricultural input subsidies for improving productivity, farm income, consumer welfare and wider growth in low‐ and middle‐income countries: A systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 10(1), 1–45. https://doi.org/10.1002/CL2.125
6. Jayne, T. S., Mason, N. M., Burke, W. J., & Ariga, J. (2018). Review: Taking stock of Africa’s second-generation agricultural input subsidy programs. Food Policy, 75, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2018.01.003
7. Kem, S. (2017). Commercialisation of smallholder agriculture in Cambodia: Impact of the cassava boom on rural livelihoods and agrarian change [Doctoral dissertation, The University of Queensland]. https://doi.org/10.14264/uql.2017.924
8. Khatiwada, K. (2025). Sustainable development and indigenous livelihood: A case study analysis of Chepang and Tamang in Nepal. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 26(1), 021–031. https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2025.26.1.1037
9. McArthur, J. W., & McCord, G. C. (2017). Fertilizing growth: Agricultural inputs and their effects in economic development. Journal of Development Economics, 127, 133–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2017.02.007
10. Mokumako, T., Dadzie, S., Acquah, H., Nuer, A., & Nkuba, M. (2025). Assessing the effects of the support program for arable agriculture development on the livelihoods of smallholder farmers in Botswana. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development, 25(05), 26788–26807. https://doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.142.25530
11. Nguyen, L., Russ, J., & Triyana, M. (2023). The effect of agricultural input subsidies on productivity: A meta-analysis (Policy Research Working Paper No. 10399). World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-10399
12. Ogunsola, O. E. (2024). Reviewing the impact of agricultural technology on smallholder farms in Africa. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Growth Evaluation, 5(3), 1126–1132. https://doi.org/10.54660/IJMRGE.2024.5.3.1126-1132
13. Ongachi, W., & Belinder, I. (2025). Agricultural extension as a pathway to livelihood diversification and sustainable development in rural communities: A systematic review. BMC Agriculture, 1(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s44399-025-00005-x
14. Sharma, L. R., Bidari, S., & Khulal, R. (2025). Discerning major strategies for alleviating poverty in developing countries. International Research Journal of MMC, 6(5), 144–156. https://doi.org/10.3126/irjmmc.v6i5.89075
15. Silva, S. R. D., Silva, M. C. D., & Schlindwein, M. M. (2022). Food gardens in a Guarani Kaiowá indigenous community: A contribution to thinking ahead. Emancipação, 22(e), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.5212/Emancipacao.v.22.2220302.008
16. Stewart, R., Langer, L., Da Silva, N. R., Muchiri, E., Zaranyika, H., Erasmus, Y., Randall, N., Rafferty, S., Korth, M., Madinga, N., & De Wet, T. (2015). The effects of training, innovation and new technology on African smallholder farmers’ economic outcomes and food security: A systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 11(1), 1–224. https://doi.org/10.4073/csr.2015.16
17. Torres, B., Vasco, C., Günter, S., & Knoke, T. (2018). Determinants of agricultural diversification in a hotspot area: Evidence from colonist and indigenous communities in the Sumaco Biosphere Reserve, Ecuadorian Amazon. Sustainability, 10(5), 1432. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10051432
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 International Research Journal of MMC (IRJMMC)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
